Logical Fallacies: Identify and Avoid!

False logic, or weak logic, is called many things. Among the more academic (polite) things, poor reasoning means committing a logical fallacy. Here is a website with a thorough list of logical fallacies and examples for each type. 

We are going to review a few of them, including the "appeal to tradition," and then you will write a revision/new point for your Essay 2 in which you work on breaking down a fallacious point.

Editing: Identify and fix FRAGments

Identifying fragments:  look for dependent clauses that start sentences, but that lack a subject or verb modified by that clause.  Read your sentences aloud and ask: Who is doing what in this sentence? 

Here are some common errors we can identify as half thoughts, dependent thoughts:

• Prepositional phrases  (ex.:  “During the war.”)
• –ing verb starts off   (ex.: “Beginning the story over.”)
• infinitive form starts off  (to verb, ex.:  “To command the army.”)
• Relative clauses starts off  (who, that, which, whose, ex.: “Which was awesome.”)
• Appositives on their own. ( ex.:  “The first president.”)

Methods for fixing:

1.     Add a subject and verb prior to the existing fragment and lower-case the fragments first word to show proper mechanics.

• Example fragment:  During the war.
• Fix:  We fought during the war

2. Change the period into a comma, then add the subject and verb.

• Example fragment:  During the war.
• Fix grammar: During the war, we fought. 
• Improve idea by adding a modifier:  During the war, we fought for oil deals. 

2.     Or, it is likely that your fragment is just improperly attached to the sentence before or after it. If this is the case, add the phrase to the sentence next to it that you are most likely using the fragment to modify by: 

• If you are attaching the fragment to the beginning of the next sentence, you will need a comma before the subject!

• We had to be back at the office in twenty minutes. To save time. We ordered cold sandwiches.
•  We had to be back at the office in twenty minutes. To save time, we ordered cold sandwiches.

• If you are attaching the fragment to the end of the last sentence because it modifies the object, then erase the period of that sentence and lowercase the first word of the fragment.

Paragraph Editing: Linking Sentences Strategies: Creating Cohesion and unity

You have two basic grammatical choices when going from one sentence to the next sentence:

1. Start the second sentence by repeating the subject of the first sentence, or

2. Start the second sentence by making the object of the first sentence the subject of the second sentence.

Borrowing "Key Words" From Previous Sentences

1. Repeat the subject of one sentence as the subject of the next sentence! 

Here are a variety of ways to think about that:

• If the subject is the author of a source you are explaining, rotate between their whole name and their last name.  

• For example:  The brother works.... The brother realizes...

• Or, use an adjective or brief phrase that helps develop the subject further.  

• For example: The speaker's devoted brother learns.... The factory-working brother realizes...

• Or, create a brief introductory phrase using a synonym (word or phrase) that characterizes your subject and gives good context, followed by the appropriate pronoun:

• For example:  The focused student and factory worker learns.... As someone with a strong work ethic, he realizes...

2. Turn the object from one sentence into the subject of the very next sentence. 

• This technique is good to use when you want to or need to make any type of transition. End one sentence with the object that you want to be the subject of the very next sentence. 

• For Math Geeks like me, in an equation: 

• Subject 1-V-Object 1.   [S2=O1]-V-Object 2. [S3=O2]-V-Object 3.  ...

•  For example: 

• The brother works at a factory during the night and at his schoolwork in the morning. His dedication to both jobs illustrates a very good work ethic. Work ethic forces a person to make sacrifices for a larger purpose. The brother's larger purpose must be to escape being a factory worker all of his life.  

The two general techniques will help you:

• Build coherency by staying on topic

• Build vocabulary as you decide on different synonyms to use, rather than trying to go to completely new places without the language to get there.

• Further pay attention to those basic parts of speech: subject, verb, and object. 

Lastly (deep breath...),  use these techniques in revising & editing all essays:

The above writing techniques can be used at any stage of of the essay writing process. Sure, it helps to practice writing this way from the first draft. However, it's also a good way to go back through and re-write your essays to help clear up coherency issues.

• Look for places where you start a sentence with a pronoun, especially one that may be too broad and lack a reference (It, This, That, Those, These...). Replace such sentences in your essay with one that uses the above techniques.

• Look for places where you have poor transitions ("trans." might be marked on a draft critique).